Part 11 - The appearance and construction of Democracy - childhood to maturity in Greece
/The movement to a new version of democracy was based on a partnership between the political clubs and some intellectually sophisticated aristocrats. The clubs provided the terror tactics to crush opposition and the aristocrats developed a new constitution. The constitution was ostensibly a democracy but in fact merely paid lip service to it.
The new leadership group (the Four Hundred) with full power and oligarchic intent, never did appoint a larger group (Council of Five Thousand) as stated in the new constitution. The Four Hundred moved aggressively to strengthen their position and began a rule by force through execution, imprisonment, and banishment of potential opponents. However, they failed to convince the bulk of the Greek Army and Navy based in Samos. And, the rank and file military and some democratic generals stopped an Oligarchic takeover on Samos. At the same time, the council of Four Hundred was beginning to implode already due to both oligarchic infighting and fear of the army at Samos. Based on this and panic at a threat from Sparta, an Assembly was called who disbanded the Four Hundred and created the Council of Five Thousand. The leaders of the Four Hundred mainly fled but some were prosecuted and convicted.
Interestingly, there was no attempt at this time to further the restoration of democracy. This arrangement lasted less than a year when full restoration took place in 410. The particulars of this are not clear - we have only a statement by Aristotle that the demos removed the Five Thousand from power and restored the democracy to the form it had prior to the revolt of the year before.
Over the next five years Athens experienced both success and defeat along with some poor judgements. The general tone was aggressive and arrogant - democracy had not been chastened by internal strife. Still, the commitment to democracy showed itself as well - a new law was passed stating that anyone who attempted to overthrow the government would be considered a public enemy subject to death and property confiscation.
The most significant development in the broader region at this time was a major alliance between Sparta and the Persian empire. The Athenians could not stop this new alliance and had to sue for peace in 404. Sparta chose to agree to lenient terms due to Athens having protected Greek freedom during the Persian wars. Athens was left with domestic independence but this did not restore unity or stability. The oligarchic elements once again organized and with support from Sparta, received approval from the Assembly to form a group of Thirty to write a new constitution and govern in the meantime. After a brief period of moderation, extreme elements took control within the Thirty and a deadly purge of opponents began - up to 1,500 were executed and many more banished. A list of three thousand was develop who alone would have full citizenship rights.
But as often happens, the Thirty overreached through its growing extremism. Moderates and some exiles revolted and defeated the Thirty who as with the Four Hundred lost their cohesion. The Thirty were disbanded and after a period of further chaos, the Spartan king stepped in and helped broker an agreement that brought reconciliation and led to the restoration of democracy in all of its key aspects.
It is important to note that it was not only the oligarchs, aristocrats, and leaders who were responsible for the Athenian decisions and conduct during this period of warfare. It was the demos itself that gave approval, through the Assembly, to every major decision in the war, mainly driven by collective hubris and susceptibility to the militarism and extremism of both the demagogues and the young radicals. The confidence and pride of the early democracy that drove much achievement and success, had transformed into a harshness and drive for dominance. The idea of noble attributes, moral force, justice, and moderation that were promulgated by Solon were drastically weakened.
However, “while the war revealed fault lines in the system, it also highlighted some notable enduring strengths. The survival of the democracy through almost 3 decades of grueling warfare in a series of setbacks and catastrophic errors culminating in total defeat and a tyrannical oligarchy demonstrated an exceptional resilience and determination to overcome adversity among the population at large, and a level of commitment to the Democratic ideal that was not matched by the resolution of those who sought to destroy it.” (Mitchell)
Despite bad decisions and much death, destruction, and loss, a strong believe in democracy by the mass of the citizenry remained. And, it was the sole reason that the coups of 411 and 404 were not successful. Those seeking to destroy democracy were unable to develop a continuing base of power and support. Those leading the coups, never had enough unity of purpose, political vision, or military strength to sustain the dictatorships they sought to establish.
At long last, this dark period of democracy yielded supported lessons. “It was accepted that action was needed to rebuild harmony and stability, and that a safe, just and orderly society would require a reaffirmation of the principle of the rule of law and a long-sought revision and codification of the existing body of law.” (Mitchell) The next post will chart the development of a more mature form of democracy in the fourth century.
