Part 3 - The appearance & construction of Democracy - childhood to maturity in Greece

Over its first 40 years, the fledgling Athenian democracy was severely challenged by nearly continuous war. As part of outlining this period, I invite the reader to test the following hypothesis: While the timeframe and many other details differ, are there notable (and instructive) parallels between this period and beyond, and the first 140 years of American democracy?

The first challenge came from Sparta, wanting to avenge its humiliation in the events described previously in The appearance & construction of Democracy - childhood to maturity in Greece, Part 2. Sparta formed an alliance with several other Greek states and began an attack that faltered when the alliance collapsed leading to significant Athenian victories and new territory. While this may not be fully validated historically, it is a possibility that this lack of cohesion was in part a result of the Spartan system’s rigidity. The much bigger threat came from the Persian empire (areas of modern day Iran, Turkey, Egypt, and portions of Afghanistan, and Pakistan).

Before continuing, it is worth a side note to make a brief comparison between Athens and what became known as Iona, in the central area on the west coast of Asia Minor. In partial parallel with Athens, in the 6th century, Iona experienced substantial growth and development based on becoming a sea-faring region and successful trading with Egypt and areas for to the west. As discussed in The appearance and birth of Democracy - birth and infancy in Greece, Part 3, in addition to the overall prosperity of Iona, the city of Miletus began the era of Greek rationalism and science which was the basis of the age of enlightenment that peaked in Athens in the 5th century (and made possible the modern world of today). Despite these accomplishments, in contrast to Athens, Iona never developed substantial political cohesion. Almost certainly this contributed to their domination and incorporation into the Persian empire. Admittedly, they did not have the Aegean Sea to protect them from the Persians as the Athenians did. However, one wonders if history would have been different if their political development had matched their wealth, culture, and ground-breaking science and rationalism.

In any case, the Ionians, did revolt against Persia in 499 BC. As part of this, they asked for help from the Greek states to their west. Somewhat typically, Sparta refused but Athens and Eretria sent assistance. Despite this, the revolt was crushed in 493 BC. However, this was the trigger that brought the Persian empire into prolonged struggle with Athens and Greece as a whole. The Persian king Darius was determined to punish the Greek states that had sent aid to the Ionians. After defeating Eretria, the Persian army turned to Athens. Athens decided (based on a vote in the Assembly) to take on the Persian army and won a still-famous victory at Marathon against a much larger force. While this defeat was substantial, if was clear that the Persians would return. To prepare for this, Sparta and Athens organized a meeting of a Greek states to create united resistance to the Persian empire. While Sparta was placed in command of the combined Greek forces, Athens was actually the key state in the combined initiative. This was due to the victory at Marathon and having by far the largest naval fleet of any Greek state.

How this fleet was made possible is an interesting side note demonstrating the benefits of both serendipity and the dynamism of the Athenians fledgling democracy. By the late 480s over the prior ten year period, the Greeks had built a fleet of perhaps 200 triremes, an amazing accomplishment for the times. Three factors combined to make this possible: 1) Themistocles, a gifted politician and military strategist was elected Archon in the late 490s. 2) Themistocles won popular support for the fleet building project through the Athenian Assembly thus allowing the resources of the state to be focused consistently over time. 3) A newly discovered vein of silver provided the necessary funding. “The task of procuring the raw materials, building the shipyards, assembling the skilled workforce and training the crews was enormous, a feat indicative of the adventurous, innovative drive that was to mark the young democracy.”(Mitchell)

In 480, Xerxes, after ascending to the throne held by his father, Darius, launched a combined land-sea invasion of Greece. After success at Thermopylae, the Persian army marched towards Athens. The defending Greeks released they could not defeat the very large Persian army on land and that their efforts would need to take place at sea. They evacuated Athens (people and property), and Xerxes burned the Athenian temples. This evacuation only worked because Themistocles secured approval from the Assembly and thus the population as a whole complied with the evacuation order in a timely and effective manner. Then, Themistocles lured the much larger Persian fleet into the narrow Salaminian straits where the Persians suffered a disastrous defeat. While this defeat prompted Xerxes to flee, he left a large army who moved towards Athens and again, the entire city/state was evacuated. With help from the Spartans and some other city/states, the Athenian army faced the Persians near Platea northwest of Athens. “After weeks of skirmishing and maneuvering they fought the greatest pitched battle of the Persian Wars, and once again, the Greeks won a resounding victory.”(Mitchell) The Greeks then pushed their advantage and attacked Persian empire territory directly - first destroying a large beached Persian fleet at Mycale on the Ionian coast and then by conquering the crucial Persian stronghold of Sestos that controlled the crucial trade route to the Black Sea. Finally, in a series of offensive engagements against the Empire in 478 BC, the Greek alliance conquered the key territories of Cyprus and Byzantium. At this point, Sparta and their Peloponnesian allies withdrew from the Alliance due to their commanders being rejected by the rest of the Alliance. In 478, Athens re-formed the Alliance and led the negotiations that led to what was called the Delian League.

The Delian League may have included as many as 150 city/states. The League had a democratic system in some respects but not so much in others. On the one hand, all members agreed to contribute ships or a commensurate financial contribution. And, the autonomy of each member was protected through the creation of a central council which had the power to decide League policy on a “one state, one vote” basis. On the other hand, Athens was the strongly recognized leader (hegemon). Athens chose the level of payments from each member, selected Treasurers to ensure collection, and dominated League debates and decision-making. This arrangement foreshadowed the Athenian empire that was to come.

For the next ten years, the League continued the war with Persia, with stunning effect. After winning the decisive battle of the period, the Greeks had gained complete control of the Aegean and the Asiatic coast. For a time, this protected Greek freedom from the Persian threat.

It was clear that one impact of the early Athenian democracy was the creation of a state that was well-organized and widely supported internally. The structure of the society as laid out by Cleisthenes meant that decision-making was highly participatory leading to strong support for State actions and expenditures. The approval of the Assembly meant reaching a conclusion relatively efficiently that was firmly supported, rather than infighting among factions and/or decision making that did not reflect the will of the whole. More broadly, the “remarkable performance of Athens in the most trying circumstances was a powerful vindication of the new Democratic order. The political structures and dynamics of government set in place by Cleisthenes …held firm and provided the revolutionary energy, unity, strong leadership and military cohesion that were evident throughout the Persian wars and brought successive victories against the odds. The high morale, which Herodotus believed was the cause of the first Athenian successes after the reforms of Cleisthenes and which he attributed to the new sense of freedom generated by these reforms, was still energizing Athenians.”(Mitchell)

But, and there is nearly always a “but” with our species, as we shall see there were storm clouds seeded directly by the very success of Athens. The problem of power is a cancer that never rests, always ready to metastasize and spread.